Relationships

In evolutionary explanations of partner preference, what does the principle of anisogamy refer to?

• AThe difference between large, costly female gametes and small, plentiful male gametes✓
• BThe tendency for both sexes to invest equally in offspring
• CThe preference for genetically similar partners, to preserve a gene pool
• DCompetition and rivalry between males for access to females

Answer: Anisogamy is the difference between the sexes' sex cells: the female ovum is large, energy-costly and limited, whereas male sperm are small, plentiful and continuously produced. This asymmetry underpins differing reproductive strategies and mate preferences.

A female being choosy about a mate who can offer resources and good genes, thereby shaping the traits of the opposite sex, is an example of which evolutionary mechanism?

• AIntra-sexual selection
• BInter-sexual selection✓
• CThe sexy sons hypothesis acting on males
• DRunaway gene mutation

Answer: Inter-sexual selection is preferences BETWEEN the sexes: one sex (typically the female, who invests more) is selective and chooses, shaping the traits of the other. Intra-sexual selection is competition within a sex for access to mates.

Which behaviour is best explained by intra-sexual selection in human mate competition?

• AA woman preferring a partner who is generous and high-status, since resources signal an ability to provide for offspring
• BA couple disclosing personal information and secrets to deepen their intimacy
• CMen competing aggressively with one another for fertile partners, favouring size and dominance✓
• DPartners settling for one another, because they match closely in physical attractiveness (the matching hypothesis)

Answer: Intra-sexual selection is competition WITHIN one sex (typically males) for mating access. Traits aiding success in those contests, such as greater size, strength and aggression, are selected for, which is offered as one account of human sexual dimorphism.

According to social penetration theory (Altman & Taylor), how does self-disclosure typically deepen a relationship?

• ADisclosure works best when it stays one-sided, since mystery and distance sustain a partner's attraction
• BCloseness is built by non-verbal cues such as eye contact and touch rather than by any exchange of information
• CDisclosing the deepest personal information, right in the first few meetings, is what strengthens a new relationship
• DReciprocal, gradually broadening and deepening exchange of personal information increases intimacy✓

Answer: Social penetration theory holds that relationships develop through reciprocal self-disclosure that gradually increases in breadth and depth; as partners 'penetrate' more deeply, trust and intimacy grow. Excessive early disclosure can in fact be off-putting.

The matching hypothesis in the study of physical attractiveness predicts that people tend to form relationships with partners who:

• AAre similar to themselves in level of physical attractiveness✓
• BAre the most physically attractive individuals available, regardless of their own looks
• CPossess opposite personality traits to balance the relationship
• DShare the same attachment type from infancy

Answer: The matching hypothesis proposes that we are attracted to those of roughly similar physical attractiveness to our own, balancing a desire for the most attractive partner against the realistic fear of rejection. It concerns similarity in attractiveness, not personality opposites.

In Kerckhoff and Davis's filter theory, which factor acts as the MOST important filter in the EARLY stages of forming a relationship?

• AComplementarity of needs
• BSocial demography (proximity, education, social class)✓
• CEquity, the rewards-to-costs ratio
• DInvestment size, resources already committed

Answer: Filter theory proposes three filters applied in sequence. Social demographic variables (such as proximity, social class and education) operate first, narrowing the 'field of availables'. Similarity in attitudes matters in the short term, and complementarity becomes important later.

In social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelley), the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) is a judgement about whether:

• AEach partner's inputs and outputs stand in a fair, balanced ratio
• BThe current relationship exceeds the rewards expected based on past experience
• CThe person could obtain greater rewards and fewer costs from a different relationship or from being alone✓
• DThe investments already made (time, money and shared friends) are too great to give up or abandon

Answer: Comparison level for alternatives concerns whether a person could do better elsewhere (another partner or being single). It is distinct from the comparison level (CL), which is the standard of rewards a person expects based on past experience and norms.

Equity theory differs from basic social exchange theory primarily because it emphasises that satisfaction depends on:

• AMaximising rewards while minimising any costs
• BThe number of attractive alternatives outside the relationship, including being single
• CThe size of the irretrievable investments already made, such as time, money, energy and the things they own together
• DA perceived fairness in the ratio of each partner's inputs to outputs, not just total profit✓

Answer: Equity theory argues that people are most satisfied when the relationship feels fair, that is, when the ratio of one partner's inputs to outputs is roughly equal to the other's. Both under-benefitting and over-benefitting can cause dissatisfaction, going beyond simple profit.

According to Rusbult's investment model, which THREE factors together determine commitment to a relationship?

• ASatisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size✓
• BRewards, costs and the comparison level (CL)
• CSelf-disclosure, physical attractiveness, and similarity
• DIntimacy, passion, and decision/commitment

Answer: Rusbult proposed that commitment is greater when satisfaction is high, the quality of alternatives is low, and investment size (resources put into the relationship that would be lost) is high. Commitment, not satisfaction alone, best predicts whether a relationship persists.

In Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown, the phase in which partners make the breakup public and tell friends and family, who may take sides, is the:

• AIntra-psychic phase
• BDyadic phase
• CSocial phase✓
• DGrave-dressing phase

Answer: Duck's model runs intra-psychic (private brooding), dyadic (confronting the partner), social (telling the wider network, who may take sides), then grave-dressing (constructing a favourable account of the breakup). Going public characterises the social phase.

What does social exchange theory propose?

• ARelationships are maintained when rewards exceed the costs✓
• BRelationships are maintained when both partners contribute equally
• CRelationships are maintained by the investment already made
• DRelationships are maintained by physical attraction alone

Answer: Thibaut and Kelley applied an economic model, with satisfaction judged against a comparison level and a comparison level for alternatives. It has been criticised for reducing relationships to selfish accounting.

How does equity theory differ from social exchange theory?

• AEquity emphasises total profit rather than fairness of the ratio
• BEquity applies only to the early stages of a relationship
• CEquity emphasises fairness of the ratio rather than total profit✓
• DEquity ignores costs and considers only the rewards received

Answer: Walster argued that perceived fairness matters more than the size of the profit, and that both over-benefitting and under-benefitting cause dissatisfaction. It better explains why an advantaged partner may also feel uncomfortable.

What are the components of Rusbult's investment model?

• ASatisfaction, physical attraction and the depth of self-disclosure
• BCommitment, filtering by similarity and then by complementarity
• CRewards, costs and the comparison level for alternatives
• DSatisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment size✓

Answer: Rusbult added investment to explain why people stay in unsatisfying relationships — resources already put in would be lost. Commitment, not satisfaction, is the direct predictor of whether the relationship continues.

What are the phases of Duck's model of breakdown?

• AIntrapsychic, dyadic, social and reconciliation
• BIntrapsychic, dyadic, social and grave-dressing✓
• CDenial, anger, bargaining and acceptance in order
• DSampling, bargaining, commitment and institutionalisation

Answer: The dissatisfied partner broods privately, then confronts, then makes it public, then constructs a favourable account. Duck later added a resurrection phase where people apply lessons to future relationships.

What is self-disclosure in relationship formation?

• ARevealing personal information gradually to build intimacy✓
• BRevealing all personal information as early as possible
• CConcealing personal information to remain interesting
• DDisclosing information only once commitment is established

Answer: Social penetration theory describes disclosure broadening and deepening reciprocally. Too much too early is off-putting, so the norm of gradual reciprocal exchange matters as much as the content.

What is the matching hypothesis?

• APeople pair with others of similar perceived social desirability✓
• BPeople pair with others who have complementary personality traits
• CPeople pair with those who happen to live in close physical proximity
• DPeople pair with those who disclose the most about themselves

Answer: Walster's computer dance found physical attractiveness predicted liking, though the matching effect is clearer in real relationships than in one-off ratings. It reflects balancing desire against fear of rejection.

What is a parasocial relationship?

• AA mutual relationship conducted entirely through online contact
• BA relationship between two people who are of unequal social status
• CA one-sided attachment to a media figure who is unaware✓
• DA friendship that develops into a romantic attachment

Answer: The absorption-addiction model links them to deficiencies in real relationships, and attachment theory links them to insecure-resistant types. Three levels run from entertainment-social through intense-personal to borderline-pathological.

What does the filter theory of attraction propose?

• AA single filter of physical attractiveness above everything else
• BSuccessive filters of proximity, similarity and complementarity✓
• CFilters which operate simultaneously rather than in a fixed sequence
• DFilters based entirely on the investment already made

Answer: Kerckhoff and Davis proposed social demography, then similarity of attitudes, then complementarity of needs as relationships deepen. Modern online dating weakens the proximity filter considerably.

What is a criticism of evolutionary explanations of partner preference?

• AThey have no supporting cross-cultural evidence at all
• BThey apply only to relationships formed after age thirty
• CThey ignore physical attractiveness entirely as a factor
• DThey struggle to account for same-sex relationships✓

Answer: An account built on reproductive success has difficulty with relationships not oriented to reproduction, and with the influence of contraception and changing social roles. Buss's cross-cultural survey is nonetheless supportive evidence.