Gender

Which statement best distinguishes the terms 'sex' and 'gender' as used in psychology?

• ASex is a social construct shaped by upbringing and culture, whereas gender is the biological status fixed by chromosomes at conception
• BSex and gender are interchangeable terms describing the same underlying category
• CSex is learned through socialisation, whereas gender is fixed at conception
• DSex refers to biological status (chromosomes, anatomy), whereas gender refers to the psychosocial attitudes and roles associated with being male or female✓

Answer: Sex is a person's innate biological status, determined by chromosomes and reflected in anatomy. Gender refers to the attitudes, behaviours and roles a society associates with being male or female, which are heavily influenced by social and cultural factors.

Bem's concept of androgyny, measured by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), refers to an individual who:

• ADisplays a balance of both masculine and feminine personality characteristics✓
• BScores low on both the masculine and the feminine scales (the pattern Bem termed undifferentiated)
• CShows ambiguous biological sex characteristics rather than a clear male or female anatomy
• DDeliberately avoids ways of behaving that count as masculine or as feminine, rejecting gender-typed conduct

Answer: Bem defined androgyny as having a balance of both masculine and feminine traits. The BSRI uses 20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral items; high scores on both the masculine and feminine scales indicate androgyny, which Bem linked to better psychological wellbeing.

A key methodological criticism of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is that:

• AIt cannot be scored quantitatively (only qualitatively), so results cannot be compared, ranked and pooled
• BThe items were devised in 1970s America, so notions of masculine and feminine traits may be culture-bound and dated✓
• CIt measures biological sex, taken from anatomy and chromosomes, rather than the way people see their own gender
• DWhen the same people are tested again the scores differ so much that test-retest reliability is close to zero

Answer: The BSRI's traits were generated by US judges in the mid-1970s, so the scale reflects a particular time and culture's view of masculinity and femininity. Such notions are temporally and culturally specific, which limits the inventory's validity in other contexts.

Regarding the role of chromosomes in sex determination, which statement is correct for typical development?

• AThe mother's egg determines the child's sex, since each egg carries either an X or a Y chromosome at fertilisation
• BMale development requires a pair of Y chromosomes (one inherited from each parent) at the 23rd chromosome position
• CThe presence of the Y chromosome, carrying the SRY gene, triggers development of testes and male anatomy✓
• DThe X chromosome carries the SRY gene, and it is this gene that initiates the formation of the testes in the embryo

Answer: Genetic sex is set by the 23rd chromosome pair (XX female, XY male). The Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which causes the gonads to develop into testes; these then secrete androgens that drive male physical development.

Which hormone is most strongly linked in AQA-spec accounts to the prenatal development of male genitalia and to aggression, being present at much higher levels in males?

• AOestrogen
• BOxytocin
• CProlactin
• DTestosterone✓

Answer: Testosterone is an androgen present at much higher levels in males. Prenatally it drives the development of male genitalia and masculinises the brain, and it has been linked to aggression and competitiveness. Oestrogen and oxytocin are typically discussed in relation to female development and bonding.

Oxytocin is most often described in gender research as the hormone that:

• APromotes bonding, intimacy and attachment, and is released in large amounts during childbirth and breastfeeding✓
• BTriggers the prenatal development of the testes, which then secrete the androgens that masculinise the body and brain
• CDetermines biological sex, anatomy and gender at conception
• DIs produced only by females and never by males

Answer: Oxytocin reduces stress hormones and facilitates bonding, trust and affection; it is released in large amounts by women during labour and breastfeeding. Although stereotypically a 'female' hormone, both sexes produce and respond to it.

Klinefelter's syndrome is an atypical sex chromosome pattern characterised by:

• AA single X chromosome (XO) in a phenotypic female
• BAn additional X chromosome (XXY) in a phenotypic male✓
• CAn additional Y chromosome (XYY) in a phenotypic male
• DA complete absence of the 23rd chromosome pair

Answer: Klinefelter's syndrome affects biological males who have an additional X chromosome (XXY). Associated features can include reduced body hair, some breast development (gynaecomastia), underdeveloped genitals and, in some cases, poorer language or executive skills.

Turner's syndrome (XO) typically presents in a phenotypic female with which of the following?

• AAn extra X chromosome (XXY), which leads to tall stature, little body hair and being unable to have children
• BMale external genitalia and an extra Y chromosome, which is linked to greater than average height and to acne
• CA missing X chromosome, with features such as short stature, a webbed neck and undeveloped ovaries✓
• DAbove-average spatial ability and heightened aggression

Answer: Turner's syndrome arises when one X chromosome is absent or incomplete (XO, 45 chromosomes). Common features include short stature, a webbed neck, broad chest, undeveloped ovaries and infertility, and sometimes higher reading ability but poorer spatial and mathematical skills.

In Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory, a boy who knows he will still be male even if he wears a dress, understanding that gender is fixed across situations, has reached which stage?

• AGender identity
• BGender stability
• CGender constancy✓
• DThe phallic stage

Answer: Kohlberg's stages are gender identity (around 2, labelling sex), gender stability (around 4, knowing it is fixed over time), and gender constancy (around 6, knowing it is fixed across situations and not changed by appearance). Recognising constancy despite a change in clothing is gender constancy.

Gender schema theory (Martin & Halverson) differs from Kohlberg's theory mainly because it proposes that children begin actively seeking and absorbing gender-relevant information:

• AOnly after they achieve full gender constancy at about age six
• BAs soon as they establish a basic gender identity at around two to three years✓
• COnce the Oedipus or Electra complex has been resolved (at about age five)
• DThrough the direct and vicarious reinforcement that parents give

Answer: Gender schema theory argues that once children have a basic gender identity (around age 2 to 3) they start building schemas about what is appropriate for their sex, paying more attention to in-group information. This is earlier than the constancy stage Kohlberg saw as the trigger.

From a social learning theory perspective, a girl who imitates her mother's behaviour and is then praised for being 'helpful' is showing gender development mainly through:

• AInnate biological priming by prenatal oestrogen
• BThe operation of gender constancy, the realisation that one's sex stays the same over time
• CIdentification with a same-sex model and direct (differential) reinforcement✓
• DRepression of the Electra complex (the psychodynamic account), then internalisation of the mother's traits

Answer: Social learning theory explains gender via modelling (imitating same-sex models with whom the child identifies), plus vicarious and direct reinforcement. Being rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviour is differential reinforcement, making that behaviour more likely to recur.

Cross-cultural research, such as Mead's study of three New Guinea tribes, is most often used to support which view of gender roles?

• AGender roles are entirely fixed by biology and identical across all cultures
• BGender identity is determined by chromosomes, hormones and brain structure
• CTelevision, advertising and film are the main routes through which gender roles are acquired
• DGender roles show cultural variation, suggesting they are at least partly socially constructed and learned✓

Answer: Mead reported differing gender-typical behaviours across the Arapesh, Mundugumor and Tchambuli, which is cited as evidence that gender roles vary between cultures and are therefore substantially shaped by social learning rather than fixed by biology alone.

What is the difference between sex and gender?

• ASex is biological, gender is the psychosocial role✓
• BGender is biological, sex is the psychosocial role
• CSex and gender are interchangeable terms in psychology
• DSex refers to behaviour and gender refers to chromosomes

Answer: Sex is determined by chromosomes and anatomy; gender covers the attitudes and behaviours a culture associates with being male or female. Gender is therefore open to social influence in a way sex is not.

What does Kohlberg's theory propose about gender development?

• AGender identity, stability then constancy develop in sequence✓
• BGender schema forms well before any gender identity is achieved
• CGender is entirely determined by the patterns of reinforcement received
• DGender develops through resolving the Oedipus complex

Answer: Kohlberg argued children only seek out gender-appropriate models once they understand gender is permanent, at about six. Gender schema theory challenges this, arguing schemas form as soon as identity is reached, around two or three.

What is the key difference between gender schema theory and Kohlberg's theory?

• ASchema theory says learning begins at constancy, not identity
• BSchema theory rejects any role for cognitive development
• CSchema theory applies only to children raised in Western cultures
• DSchema theory says learning begins at identity, not constancy✓

Answer: Martin and Halverson argued that once a child labels themselves, they actively seek in-group information — which is why very young children already show strong stereotypes, something Kohlberg's later timetable cannot explain.

What role do chromosomes play in typical sex determination?

• AXY produces female and XX produces male development
• BXXY produces typical male development in every case
• CChromosomes have no role in determining biological sex
• DXX produces female and XY produces male development✓

Answer: The SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers testes to develop and androgens to be released. Atypical patterns such as Klinefelter's (XXY) and Turner's (XO) syndrome help identify what chromosomes contribute.

What does research on Klinefelter's syndrome suggest?

• AChromosome patterns influence physical but never psychological traits
• BChromosome patterns have no influence on any human trait
• CPsychological traits are determined solely by socialisation
• DChromosome patterns influence physical and psychological traits✓

Answer: XXY individuals often show reduced body hair, some language difficulty and passivity, while Turner's syndrome is linked to higher verbal but lower spatial ability. Comparing atypical patterns is how the biological contribution is isolated.

What is androgyny?

• AAn absence of both masculine and feminine traits
• BA biological condition involving atypical chromosomes
• CA balance of masculine and feminine traits in one person✓
• DThe stage at which gender constancy is finally achieved

Answer: Bem argued androgyny is associated with better psychological wellbeing and measured it with the BSRI. The inventory has been criticised as dated, since the traits it lists reflect 1970s American stereotypes.

How does social learning theory explain gender development?

• AThrough unconscious identification with the same-sex parent
• BThrough the maturation of innate cognitive schemas
• CThrough modelling, imitation and differential reinforcement✓
• DThrough the direct action of prenatal sex hormones

Answer: Children observe same-sex models and are reinforced for gender-appropriate behaviour, directly and vicariously. It explains cultural and historical change well, which biological accounts struggle with.

What did Freud propose about gender development?

• AIdentification with the same-sex parent during the phallic stage✓
• BIdentification with the opposite-sex parent during the oral stage
• CGradual construction of schemas throughout early childhood
• DReinforcement of gender-typed behaviour by both parents

Answer: Resolving the Oedipus or Electra complex leads the child to internalise the same-sex parent's characteristics. The theory is criticised as unfalsifiable and for being based largely on Freud's own case studies.

What is a criticism of using cross-cultural research on gender roles?

• ACross-cultural research cannot reveal any useful differences
• BAll cultures have been shown to have identical gender roles
• CImposed etic risks applying Western measures inappropriately✓
• DCross-cultural research is always conducted by one researcher

Answer: Measures developed in one culture may not mean the same elsewhere, and translation rarely preserves nuance. Mead's Papua New Guinea work is influential but was challenged by Freeman for observer bias.