Gender

Which statement best distinguishes the terms 'sex' and 'gender' as used in psychology?

• ASex is a social construct, whereas gender is biological
• BSex and gender are interchangeable terms with no meaningful difference
• CSex is learned through socialisation, whereas gender is fixed at conception
• DSex refers to biological status (chromosomes, anatomy), whereas gender refers to the psychosocial attitudes and roles associated with being male or female✓

Answer: Sex is a person's innate biological status, determined by chromosomes and reflected in anatomy. Gender refers to the attitudes, behaviours and roles a society associates with being male or female, which are heavily influenced by social and cultural factors.

Bem's concept of androgyny, measured by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), refers to an individual who:

• ADisplays a balance of both masculine and feminine personality characteristics✓
• BScores low on both masculine and feminine traits (undifferentiated)
• CHas ambiguous biological sex characteristics
• DRejects all gender-typed behaviour

Answer: Bem defined androgyny as having a balance of both masculine and feminine traits. The BSRI uses 20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral items; high scores on both the masculine and feminine scales indicate androgyny, which Bem linked to better psychological wellbeing.

A key methodological criticism of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is that:

• AIt cannot be scored quantitatively
• BThe items were devised in 1970s America, so notions of masculine and feminine traits may be culture-bound and dated✓
• CIt measures biological sex rather than gender identity
• DIt has no test-retest reliability whatsoever

Answer: The BSRI's traits were generated by US judges in the mid-1970s, so the scale reflects a particular time and culture's view of masculinity and femininity. Such notions are temporally and culturally specific, which limits the inventory's validity in other contexts.

Regarding the role of chromosomes in sex determination, which statement is correct for typical development?

• AThe mother's egg determines the sex of the child by carrying either an X or a Y chromosome
• BTwo Y chromosomes are required for male development
• CThe presence of the Y chromosome, carrying the SRY gene, triggers development of testes and male anatomy✓
• DThe X chromosome carries the gene that initiates testis formation

Answer: Genetic sex is set by the 23rd chromosome pair (XX female, XY male). The Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which causes the gonads to develop into testes; these then secrete androgens that drive male physical development.

Which hormone is most strongly linked in AQA-spec accounts to the prenatal development of male genitalia and to aggression, being present at much higher levels in males?

• AOestrogen
• BOxytocin
• CProlactin
• DTestosterone✓

Answer: Testosterone is an androgen present at much higher levels in males. Prenatally it drives the development of male genitalia and masculinises the brain, and it has been linked to aggression and competitiveness. Oestrogen and oxytocin are typically discussed in relation to female development and bonding.

Oxytocin is most often described in gender research as the hormone that:

• APromotes bonding, intimacy and attachment, and is released in large amounts during childbirth and breastfeeding✓
• BTriggers the development of the testes prenatally
• CDetermines biological sex at the moment of conception
• DIs produced only by females and never by males

Answer: Oxytocin reduces stress hormones and facilitates bonding, trust and affection; it is released in large amounts by women during labour and breastfeeding. Although stereotypically a 'female' hormone, both sexes produce and respond to it.

Klinefelter's syndrome is an atypical sex chromosome pattern characterised by:

• AA single X chromosome (XO) in a phenotypic female
• BAn additional X chromosome (XXY) in a phenotypic male✓
• CAn additional Y chromosome (XYY) in a phenotypic male
• DA complete absence of the 23rd chromosome pair

Answer: Klinefelter's syndrome affects biological males who have an additional X chromosome (XXY). Associated features can include reduced body hair, some breast development (gynaecomastia), underdeveloped genitals and, in some cases, poorer language or executive skills.

Turner's syndrome (XO) typically presents in a phenotypic female with which of the following?

• AAn extra X chromosome and unusually tall stature
• BMale external genitalia and an additional Y chromosome
• CA missing X chromosome, with features such as short stature, a webbed neck and undeveloped ovaries✓
• DAbove-average spatial ability and heightened aggression

Answer: Turner's syndrome arises when one X chromosome is absent or incomplete (XO, 45 chromosomes). Common features include short stature, a webbed neck, broad chest, undeveloped ovaries and infertility, and sometimes higher reading ability but poorer spatial and mathematical skills.

In Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory, a boy who knows he will still be male even if he wears a dress, understanding that gender is fixed across situations, has reached which stage?

• AGender identity
• BGender stability
• CGender constancy✓
• DThe phallic stage

Answer: Kohlberg's stages are gender identity (around 2, labelling sex), gender stability (around 4, knowing it is fixed over time), and gender constancy (around 6, knowing it is fixed across situations and not changed by appearance). Recognising constancy despite a change in clothing is gender constancy.

Gender schema theory (Martin & Halverson) differs from Kohlberg's theory mainly because it proposes that children begin actively seeking and absorbing gender-relevant information:

• AOnly after they achieve full gender constancy at about age six
• BAs soon as they establish a basic gender identity at around two to three years✓
• COnly once the Oedipus or Electra complex is resolved
• DThrough direct reinforcement alone, with no internal mental structures

Answer: Gender schema theory argues that once children have a basic gender identity (around age 2 to 3) they start building schemas about what is appropriate for their sex, paying more attention to in-group information. This is earlier than the constancy stage Kohlberg saw as the trigger.

From a social learning theory perspective, a girl who imitates her mother's behaviour and is then praised for being 'helpful' is showing gender development mainly through:

• AInnate biological priming by oestrogen
• BThe operation of gender constancy
• CIdentification with a same-sex model and direct (differential) reinforcement✓
• DRepression of the Electra complex

Answer: Social learning theory explains gender via modelling (imitating same-sex models with whom the child identifies), plus vicarious and direct reinforcement. Being rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviour is differential reinforcement, making that behaviour more likely to recur.

Cross-cultural research, such as Mead's study of three New Guinea tribes, is most often used to support which view of gender roles?

• AGender roles are entirely fixed by biology and identical across all cultures
• BGender identity is determined solely by chromosomes
• CThe media has no influence on gender role acquisition
• DGender roles show cultural variation, suggesting they are at least partly socially constructed and learned✓

Answer: Mead reported differing gender-typical behaviours across the Arapesh, Mundugumor and Tchambuli, which is cited as evidence that gender roles vary between cultures and are therefore substantially shaped by social learning rather than fixed by biology alone.